People often draw the lessons from history that they feel others should
have learnt from experience, and the post-world war modernist experience is no
exception. Nazi Germany was depicted as "the last charge Romanticism had
in its belly", and the product of irrational attachment to the state. The
shattering of
This period is often described as "High Modernism", and on the
one hand it lead to artists exploring the most extended, some would say
extreme, consequences of modernist ideas - for example serialism and abstract expressionism, and at the same time, modernist design - in consumer goods,
architecture, clothing and furnishings, became the norm. The top hats, dresses
and frills of another age were tossed aside, or used only as high costume. The
expansion of rail and road networks, the pouring of labor into cities from the
country-side, and the vast building programs necessitated by the need to
command and control the new economy, meant that the societies of Europe,
America and Japan were thrust into the modern, and modernist, world.
The collision between popular sensibility and rarified ideas became one
of the most contentious, and extended, debates within modernism. The conflict,
always latent, became acute, as, on one hand, the need for ever more
specialized elites and ever more specialized knowledge pushed towards the
"pure" forms of modernism, while at the same time mass production,
broadcasting and organization lead to the creation of popular culture which,
while it made reference to the imagined victorian way of life, was as rooted in
new ideas as the most esoteric of poems.
The most controversial aspect of the modern movement was, and remains,
its rejection of tradition, both in organization, and in the immediate
experience of the work. If there is a fundamental idea of modernism it is that
spiritual existence should conform to outside pressures, and that art and human
activity should, and could, be molded to do this. This dismissal of tradition
also involved the rejection of conventional expectations: hence modernism often
stresses freedom of expression, experimentation, radicalism, and primitivism. In
many art forms this often meant startling and alienating audiences with bizarre
and unpredictable effects. Hence the strange and disturbing
combinations of motifs in Surrealism, or the use of
extreme dissonance in modernist
music. In literature this often involved the rejection of intelligible
plots or characterisation in novels, or the creation of poetry that defied
clear interpretation.
Many modernists believed that by rejecting tradition they could discover
radically new ways of making art. Schoenberg believed that by ignoring
traditional tonal
harmony, the hierarchical system of organizing works of music which had guided
music making for at least a century and a half, and perhaps longer, he had
discovered a wholly new way of organizing sound, based in the use of
twelve-note rows (See Twelve-tone technique). This lead to what is known as serial music by the post-war period. Abstract artists, taking as their examples the
Impressionists, as well as Paul Cézanne and Edvard Munch,
began with the assumption that color and shape
formed the essential characteristics of art, not the depiction of the natural
world. Wassily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, and Kazimir Malevich, and lesser known yet prolific painters such as Fuller Potter, all
believed in redefining art as the arrangement of pure colour. The use of photography,
which had rendered much of the representational function of visual art
obsolete, strongly affected this particular aspect of modernism. However, these
artists also believed that by rejecting the depiction of material objects they
helped art move from a materialist to a spiritualist phase of development.
Other modernists, especially those involved in design, had more
pragmatic views. Modernist architects and designers believed that new
technology rendered old styles of building obsolete. Le Corbusier (born
Charles-Edouard Jeanneret) thought that buildings should function as "machines for
living in", analogous to cars, which he saw as machines for travelling in. Just as cars had replaced
the horse, so
modernist design should reject the old styles and structures inherited from Ancient Greece or from the Middle Ages. Following this machine aesthetic, modernist designers typically reject
decorative motifs in design, preferring to emphasise the materials used and
pure geometrical forms. The skyscraper, such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New York (1956 – 1958),
became the archetypal modernist building. Modernist design of houses and
furniture also typically emphasised simplicity and clarity of form, open-plan
interiors, and the absence of clutter. Modernism reversed the 19th century
relationship of public and private: in the 19th century, public buildings were
horizontally expansive for a variety of technical reasons, and private
buildings emphasized verticality - to fit more private space on more and more
limited land. Where as in the 20th century, public buildings became vertically
oriented, and private buildings became organized horizontally. Many aspects of
modernist design still persist within the mainstream of contemporary
architecture today, though its previous dogmatism has given way to a more
playful use of decoration, historical quotation, and spatial drama.
In other arts such pragmatic considerations were less important. In
literature and visual art some modernists sought to defy expectations mainly in
order to make their art more vivid, or to force the audience to take the
trouble to question their own preconceptions. This aspect of modernism has
often seemed a reaction to consumer culture, which developed in Europe and North America in the late 19th century. Whereas most manufacturers try to make
products that will be marketable by appealing to preferences and prejudices,
high modernists rejected such consumerist attitudes in order to undermine
conventional thinking. The art critic Clement Greenberg expounded this theory of modernism in his essay Avant Garde and
Kitsch. Greenberg labelled the products of consumer culture "kitsch",
because their design aimed simply to have maximum appeal, with any difficult
features removed. For Greenberg, modernism thus formed a reaction against
the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercial
popular music, Hollywood, and advertising.
Greenberg associated this with a revolutionary rejection of capitalism.
Many modernists did see themselves as part of a revolutionary culture -
one that included political revolution. However, many rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions, believing that a revolution of consciousness had greater importance than a change in political structures. Many
modernists saw themselves as apolitical, only concerned with revolutionizing
their own field of endeavour. Others, such as T. S. Eliot,
rejected mass popular culture from a conservative
position. Indeed one can argue that modernism in literature and art functioned
to sustain an elite
culture which excluded the majority of the population.
Because of its emphasis on individual freedom and expression, and its
emphasis on the individual, many modern artists ran afoul of totalitarian
governments, many of which saw traditionalism in the arts as an important prop
to their political power. Two of the most famous examples are the Soviet Communist government rejected modernism on the grounds of alleged elitism; and
the Nazi
government in Germany
deemed it narcissistic and
nonsensical, as well as "Jewish" and "Negro" (See Anti-semitism). The Nazis exhibited modernist paintings alongside works by the mentally ill in an
exhibition entitled Degenerate art. Accusations of "formalism" could lead to the end of a
career, or worse. For this reason many modernists of the post-war generation
felt that they were the most important bulwark against totalitarianism, the
"canary in the coal mine", whose repression
by a government or other group with supposed authority represented a warning
that individual liberties were being threatened.
In fact, modernism flourished mainly in consumer/capitalist societies,
despite the fact that its proponents often rejected consumerism itself.
However, high modernism began to merge with consumer culture after World War II,
especially during the 1960s. In Britain, a
youth sub-culture even
called itself "moderns", though usually shortened to Mods. In
popular music, Bob Dylan combined
folk music
traditions with modernist verse, adopting literary devices derived from Eliot
and others. The Beatles also
developed along these lines, even creating atonal and other modernist musical effects in their later albums. Musicians
such as Frank Zappa and Captain Beefheart proved even more experimental. Modernist devices also started to appear
in popular cinema, and later on in music videos.
Modernist design also began to enter the mainstream of popular culture, as
simplified and stylized forms became popular, often associated with dreams of a
space age
high-tech future.
This merging of consumer and high versions of modernist culture led to a
radical transformation of the meaning of "modernism" itself. Firstly,
it implied that a movement based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition
of its own. Secondly, it demonstrated that the distinction between elite
modernist and mass consumerist culture had lost its precision. Some writers
declared that modernism had become so institutionalized that it was now
"post avant garde", indicating that it had lost its power as a
revolutionary movement. Many have interpreted this transformation as the
beginning of the phase that became known as Postmodernism. For others, such as, for example, art critic Robert Hughes, postmodernism represents an extension of modernism.
One deep element of modernism has been alienation, either of the individual from self, or from society, or from the
"natural" basis of existence. For this reason there have been
repeated "anti-modern" or "counter-modern" movements, which
seek to emphasize holism, connection and spirituality as being remedies or
antidotes to modernism. Such movements see Modernism as reductionist, and
therefore subject to the failure to see systematic and emergent
effects. Many Modernists came to this viewpoint, for example Paul Hindemith in his late turn towards mysticism. Writers such as Paul Ray and Sherry
Ruth, in Culture Creatives, Fredrick Turner in A Culture of Hope
and Lester Brown in Plan B, have articulated a critique of the basic
idea of modernism itself: that individual creative expression should conform to
the realities of technology, and instead that individual creativity should make
every day life more emotionally acceptable.
In some fields the effects of modernism have remained stronger and more
persistent than in others. Visual art has made the most complete break with its
past. Most major capital cities have museums devoted to 'Modern Art' as
distinct from post-Renaissance art (circa
1400 to circa
1900). Examples
include the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Tate Gallery in London, and
the Centre Pompidou in Paris. Such
galleries (and popular attitudes) make no distinction between modernist and
postmodernist phases, seeing both as developments within 'Modern Art'.